The Dutch colonial government declared war on Aceh on 26 March 1873 after some diplomatic threats were made. An expedition under general-major Köhler was sent out in 1874, which was able to occupy most of the coastal areas. It was the intentionof the Dutch to attack and take the Sultans palace, which would also lead to the occupation of the entire country, a claasic form of gun boat diplomacy. The Sultan requested and possibly received military aid from Italy and the United States in Singapore: in any case the Aceh army was rapidly modernized, and Aceh soldiers managed to kill Köhler (a monument of this achievement has been built inside Masjid Raya Banda Aceh). Köhler made some grave tactical errors and the reputation of the Dutch was severly harmed.

A second expediton led by general Van Swieten managed to capture the kraton (sultan's palace): the Sultan had however been warned, and had escaped capture. Intermittent guerrilla warfare continued in the region for ten years, with many victims on both sides. Around 1880 the Dutch strategy changed: rather than continuing the war, they now concentrated on defending areas already under control, which were the central region (modern day Banda Aceh), and the harbour town of Ulhee Lheue. On 13 October 1880 the colonial government declared the war as over.

Aceh (pronounced Ah-chay) is a special territory (daerah istimewa, or "special area") of Indonesia, located on the northern tip of the island of Sumatra. Its full name is Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam; past spellings of its name include Acheh, Atjeh and Achin.

Aceh is known for its political independence and fierce resistance to control by outsiders, including the former Dutch colonists and the current Indonesian government. For the last 26 years, it has been torn by a seperatist conflict waged by the Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka - GAM) against the Jakarta government rooted in issues over control of resources, and over cultural and religious issues. Aceh has substantial natural resources, including oil & gas - some estimates put Aceh gas reserves as being the largest in the world. Relative to most of Indonesia, it is a religiously conservative area.

Aceh was the closest point of land to the epicenter of the massive 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which triggered a tsunami that devastated much of the western coast of the region, including the capital of Banda Aceh. Over 150,000 persons were listed as dead or missing , with a further 500,000 plus being made homeless. One positive aspect of this tragedy has been yet another tentative peace agreement between the government of Indonesia and GAM, with the signing of a MoU on 15th August, 2005. At the time of signing, the outlook for a successful outcome was seen as being cautiously optimistic.

The population of Aceh is estimated at 4.01 million (2000 census), almost two percent of the Indonesian population.

Banda Aceh is the provincial capital and largest city of Aceh, Indonesia, located on the island of Sumatra at 5°31′ N 95°25′ E, with an elevation of 21 m. The population was approximately 225,000 in mid-2004.

The first part of its name comes from the Persian bandar (بندر) and means "port" or "haven".

On December 26, 2004, one of the deadliest natural disasters in modern history, the Indian Ocean earthquake, struck off the western coast of Sumatra. The earthquake and subsequent tsunamis reportedly killed over 170,000 people around the rim of the Indian Ocean. Banda Aceh was the closest major city to the earthquake's epicentre.

A chicken (Gallus gallus) is a type of domesticated bird which is often raised as a type of poultry. It is believed to be descended from the wild Asian Red Junglefowl.

Chickens are the most common bird in the world. The population in 2003 was 24 billion, according to the Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds.

Chickens in agriculture
In the United States, chickens were once raised primarily on the family farm. Prior to about 1930, chicken was served for primarily on special occasions or on Sunday as the birds were typically more valued for their eggs than meat. Excess roosters or non-productive hens would be culled from the flock first for butchering. As cities developed and markets sprung up across the nation, live chickens from local farms could often be seen for sale in crates outside the market, to be butchered and cleaned onsite by the butcher.

With the advent of refrigeration, poultry production changed dramatically. Large farms and packing plants emerged that could grow birds by the thousands. Adult chickens could be sent to factories for butchering and processing into pre-packaged commercial products to be frozen or shipped fresh to markets or wholesalers. Large farms or factories could be established devoted solely to egg production and packaging. Once a meat consumed only occasionally, the common availability has made chicken a common and significant meat product within developed nations. Growing concerns over cholesterol in the 1980s and 1990s further resulted in increased consumption.

Similarly, egg production also changed with the development of automation and refrigeration. Today, eggs are grown on factory farms in highly controlled settings. Special varieties of chickens are fed special diets high in calcium and protein to stimulate maximum egg production. Chickens are exposed to artificial light cycles to stimulate egg production year-round. In addition, it is a common practice to force chickens to molt through the careful manipulation of light and the amount of food they receive in order to further increase egg production.

Birds are bipedal, warm-blooded, egg-laying vertebrates characterized primarily by feathers, forelimbs modified as wings, and hollow bones.

Birds range in size from the tiny hummingbirds to the huge Ostrich and Emu. Depending on taxonomic viewpoint, there are about 8,800–10,200 living bird species (plus about 120–130 that have become extinct in the span of human history) in the world, making them the most diverse class of terrestrial vertebrates.

Birds are a very differentiated class, with some feeding on nectar, plants, seeds, insects, rodents, fish, carrion, or other birds. Most birds are diurnal, or active during the day. Some birds, such as the owls and nightjars, are nocturnal or crepuscular (active during twilight hours). Many birds migrate long distances to utilise optimum habitats (e.g., Arctic Tern) while others spend almost all their time at sea (e.g. the Wandering Albatross). Some, such as frigatebirds, stay aloft for days at a time, even sleeping on the wing.

Common characteristics of birds include a bony beak with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, high metabolic rate, and a light but strong skeleton. Most birds are characterised by flight, though the ratites are flightless, and several other species, particularly on islands, have also lost this ability. Flightless birds include the penguins, Ostrich, kiwi, and the extinct Dodo. Flightless species are vulnerable to extinction when humans or the mammals they introduce arrive in their habitat, for example the Great Auk, flightless rails, and the moa of New Zealand.

Respiration
Birds respire by means of crosscurrent flow: the air flows at a 90 degree angle to the flow of blood in the lungs capillaries. In addition to the lungs themselves, birds have posterior and anterior air sacs (typically nine) which control air flow through the lungs, but do not play a direct role in gas exchange. There are three parts involved in respiration:

the anterior air sacs (interclavicular, cervicals, and anterior thoracics),
the lungs, and
the posterior air sacs (posterior thoracics & abdominals).
It takes a bird two full breaths (inhaling and exhaling), to completely cycle the air from each inhalation through the lungs and out again. The air flows through air sacs and lungs as follows.

First inhalation: air flows through the trachea and bronchi into the posterior air sacs.
First exhalation: air flows from the posterior air sacs to the lungs.
Second inhalation: air flows from the lungs to the anterior air sacs.
Second exhalation: air flows from the anterior sacs back through the trachea and out of the body.
In birds, at each inhalation and each exhalation fresh air flows through the lungs in only one direction. Birds are therefore able to diffuse more oxygen into their blood. Unlike humans and other mammals, there is no mixing of oxygen rich air and carbon dioxide rich air. Thus, the partial pressure of oxygen in a bird's lungs is the same as the environment. This is also why you would more likely see a bird on Mount Everest than, say, a mouse.

Avian lungs do not have alveoli, as mammalian lungs do, but instead contain millions of tiny passages known as parabronchi, connected at either ends by the dorsobronchi and ventrobronchi. Air flows through the honeycombed walls of the parabronchi and into air capillaries, where oxygen and carbon-dioxide are traded with cross-flowing blood capillaries by diffusion.

Snakes are cold blooded legless reptiles closely related to lizards, which share the order Squamata. There are also several species of legless lizard which superficially resemble snakes, but are not otherwise related to them. A love of snakes is called ophiophilia, a fear of snakes is called ophidiophobia (or snakephobia), a specialist in snakes is an ophiologist.

An old synonym for snake is serpent; in modern usage this usually refers to a mythic or symbolic snake, and information about such creatures will be found under serpent. This article deals with the biology of snakes.

Snake charmers
In some parts of the world, especially in India, snake charming is a roadside show performed by a charmer. In this, the snake charmer carries a basket that contain a snake which he seemingly charms by playing tunes from his flute-like musical instrument, to which the snake responds. However, snakes are deaf, so they cannot hear the music of the charmer's instrument. Researchers have pointed out that many of these snake charmers are good sleight-of-hand artists. The snake moves corresponding to the flute movement and the vibrations from the tapping of the charmer's foot which is not noticed by the public. They rarely catch their snakes and the snakes are either nonvenomous or defanged cobras. Sometimes these people exploit the fear of snakes by released snakes into the neigbourhood and claim to rid the residence of snakes. Other snake charmers also have a snake and mongoose show, where both the animals have a mock fight; however, this is not very common.

Snake trapping
Despite the existence of snake charmers, there have also been professional snake catchers. The tribals of "Irulas" from Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in India have been practicising this art for generations. They generally don't use gimmicks and with the help of a simple stick catch the snakes from the fields or houses. They are also known to eat some of the snakes they catch and are very useful in rat extermination in the villages. Their knowledge of snakes and their behaviour is uncanny. Modern day snake trapping involves an ornithologist using a long stick with a "V" shaped end. Some like Steve Irwin prefer to catch them using bare hands.

Iptelecoms, the UK distributors for Swyx and specialists in the distribution of IP telephony products, found they had a major success on their hands when exhibiting at the 2005 Convergence Summit held at Stoneley Park near Coventry on the 6th and 7th of August this year.

Steve Curtis, Managing Director of Iptelecoms Ltd said “The exhibition has been a major success story for us. This is the first time that we have exhibited at the Convergence Summit and we are delighted with the astounding interest shown in our product line-up.” He also told us “Over the past few weeks we have seen a major upturn in business and the time is most definitely now for IP telephony and converged solutions. Resellers are realizing that this is the only route forward and the move to IP opens up many additional revenue streams to them.”

On several occasions dealers were waiting in line for a live Swyx demonstration whilst many other stands were visibly quieter.

 Iptelecoms work closely with their reseller channel to ensure they fully understand the feature rich products that they are taking to market. 

 Mark Russell, Technical Director at Iptelecoms who has over 6 years experience with Swyx SoftPBX told us “Watching the expressions on peoples face turn into a booming smile as they were shown the feature rich product was amazing. I’ve never experienced anything quite like it. Having been in the telecoms industry for over 20 years and worked with the data industry for over 8 years we are ideally placed to both help our voice resellers understand the issues associated with entering the world of converged networks and our data resellers how the product should be taken to market.”
 
Those resellers wishing to partner with Iptelecoms should either obtain further information from http://www.iptelecoms.com or email sales@iptelecoms.com.

  A monoscope was a special form of cathode ray tube that was used to generate, rather than display, a video signal. Each tube was only capable of generating a single video signal, hence the name.

Essentially similar in construction to an ordinary CRT, the monoscope contained a formed metal target at the "screen" end and as the electron beam scanned the target, a varying electrical signal was produced. This signal reproduced an accurate image of the target and so could be used to produce test patterns and the like. For example, the classic Indian Head test card shown at the right was often produced using a monoscope.

Justice is a concept involving the fair, moral, and impartial treatment of all persons, especially in law. It is often seen as the continued effort to do what is "right." In most of all cases what one regards as "right" is determined by consulting the majority, employing logic, or referring to divine authority, in the case of religion. If a person lives under a certain set law in a certain country, justice is considered making the person follow the law and be punished if not.

Classically, justice was the ability to recognize one's debts and pay them. It was a virtue that encompassed an unwillingness to lie or steal. It was the basis for the code duello. In this view, justice is the opposite of the vice of venality.

In jurisprudence, justice is the obligation that the legal system has toward the individual citizen and the society as a whole.

Justice (in both senses) is part of the debate regarding moral relativism and moral objectivism: Is there an "objective standard" of justice, under which all behavior should be judged, or is it acceptable for justice to have different meanings in different societies? Some cultures, for instance, see punishments such as the death penalty as being appropriate, while others decry such acts as crimes against humanity.

In some cases, justice is not equated with laws. For instance, laws that once supported slavery are now considered unjust laws such as the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 in the United States. Also, many laws of illegitimate governments are considered unjust. Further, the social justice movement questions the morality of laws that protect property rights without adequate protection of the poor, especially those laws governing international trade.